Understanding UV Radiation and Protecting Against Its Hazards

Sunlight plays a crucial role in life on our planet; however, excessive exposure can lead to harmful consequences. To assess the level of UV radiation in a specific area and take precautionary measures, scientists have developed a special UV index. Here, we explain what it is and how to protect yourself from varying intensities of ultraviolet rays.
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 ![Source: thehealthjournals.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/rRgujELJroruJUbFRTCo/orig)

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Source: thehealthjournals.com
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### The Power of Ultraviolet Radiation
Ultraviolet radiation greatly influences our biosphere. Sunlight aids in plant photosynthesis and helps humans produce essential Vitamin D. However, prolonged exposure to UV rays can pose health threats. Scientists categorize UV light based on its effects on living organisms:

— UV-A: The safest for skin, these rays have the longest wavelength and contribute to Vitamin D synthesis.

— UV-B: Medium wavelength rays that can cause sunburns and health complications.

— UV-C: The most harmful, capable of causing skin cancer and other severe illnesses.

The shorter the wavelength, the more intense the UV effect. Though UV-C has the shortest wavelength, Earth's atmosphere shields us from most of it.

UV radiation's strength and makeup depend on several factors, like latitude, time of day, altitude, cloud cover, and environmental conditions.

### Exposure: From Beaches to Cities
For the most UV protection, remain indoors during peak sun hours and venture out after sunset. While not feasible for most, especially summer vacationers, it's vital to gauge potential risks and have protective measures in place.

At the beach, the sea water reflects UV rays, amplifying their intensity. Unfortunately, many beachgoers expose significant skin areas, particularly dangerous in equatorial regions with high UV intensity.

High altitudes in the mountains are also UV-prone areas. As altitude increases, proximity to the sun reduces the time UV rays take to reach you. Moreover, snow and ice reflect sunlight, intensifying UV radiation.

Even if you're spending the summer in the city, hazards persist. UV rays can reflect off vehicles, roads, metallic structures, and large glass-paneled buildings. Wide city streets sometimes offer little shade, posing direct exposure threats.
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![Source: summitmedical.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/DJOBRrAlEhPlOkDaQXPg/orig)

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Source: summitmedical.com
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### Understanding the UV Index & Protective Measures
The UV index, developed by scientists, measures UV radiation intensity:

— Low (0–2): Minimal sunburn risk; no protective measures required.

— Moderate (3–5): Slight sunburn risk; use sunblock (SPF 15+) and UV-protective sunglasses.

— High (6–7): Elevated sunburn risk; apply high-SPF sunblock, wear protective clothing, and avoid direct sunlight from 10 AM-4 PM.

— Very High (8–10): Significant sunburn risk; use SPF 50 sunblock and minimize sun exposure between 10 AM-4 PM.

— Extreme (11+): Acute sunburn threat; maximize sun protection. Exposed skin and eyes can suffer within minutes.

You can check your area's current UV index on our website in the detailed forecast. On sunny days, always review the UV index. If elevated, apply sunblock and avoid direct sunlight.

Sunlight and UV Dangers: A Guide to Safe Exposure

Tornadoes are as hard to predict as they are to forget after experiencing one. These mysterious whirlwinds can look like ordinary clouds, hide behind heavy rain, and even

Tornadoes are as hard to predict as they are to forget after experiencing one. These mysterious whirlwinds can look like ordinary clouds, hide behind heavy rain, and even touch ground in a snowstorm. Keep reading to learn how tornadoes are formed and what myths get stuck in their vortex. 

Tornadoes are as hard to predict as they are to forget after experiencing one. These mysterious whirlwinds can look like ordinary clouds, hide behind heavy rain, and even touch ground in a snowstorm. Keep reading to learn how tornadoes are formed and what myths get stuck in their vortex. 
Remember: you can always check Weather for current weather forecasts. 

## What are tornadoes?

Tornadoes are rotating columns of air that form in a thundercloud cloud and spiral downwards. The diameter of the lower funnel reaches an average of 400 meters and depends on where the tornado travels: about 5–30 meters over water, or 1.5–4 km on land.
When a tornado is formed over water, meteorologists refer to it as a waterspout.
 

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![Source: nytimes.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/ifikFEPCAbxPLIEXLInT/orig)

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Source: nytimes.com

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## How tornadoes are formed?
Even today, scientists are still uncertain exactly how and why tornadoes form. The general belief is that most tornadoes come from mesocyclones when warm and cold air collide. It looks like if another cloud appears under the base of the thundercloud behind the section where precipitation is visible. 

Due to the powerful updraught and downdraught in this cloud, particles start moving rapidly enough to form a column of violently rotating air. A stream of warm air descends inside the funnel, and cold air envelops it around the outside edges. 

An area of low pressure forms in the center of the vortex, causing the descending whirlwinds to start acting like a vacuum cleaner, sucking in everything in their way. For example, the large amount of moisture that rises along with updraughts of cold air form a condensation funnel, helping make the tornado visible. 


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![Source: rri.co.id/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/nwkYwcyoLgMMwiHtUXEQ/orig)

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Source: rri.co.id

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## However, sometimes tornadoes can be formed even without any temperature differences.

It's impossible to measure the speed of air in the funnel, but studies show that it's usually under 50 m/s with the potential to reach up to 100 m/s. Tornadoes move along with the thundercloud they're formed from. The longest tornado in history was the Tri-State Tornado, a vortex lasting 3.5 hours that covered 350 km from start to finish.
Where the lower funnel meets the surface of land or water, there can be a small cloud of dust, debris, or condensation rising upward. After reaching a certain height, everything picked up by the wind falls back down.
Tornadoes look a lot like a rope, whip, or long cloud. Tornadoes hidden by heavy rain or forming at night are especially dangerous and can only be detected by sound or weather radar. The color of the funnel depends on the surface: over land tornadoes get gray or white, while waterspouts are white or dark blue.
Tornadoes can form on every continent and in many countries. They're most often seen in the U.S., Argentina, and Bangladesh. In Russia, they mostly touch down in the western part of the country in the summer.

## Types of tornadoes

Here are some types of whirlwinds that can occur:
- Rope tornado: Long, thin, and often winding in appearance.
- Wedge tornado: Look like ragged clouds and are wider than they're long.
- Multi-vortex tornado: Form from two or more columns around the central vortex.


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![Source: accuweather.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/nqqrCkBpqUDekjSGfeLh/orig)

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Source: accuweather.com

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Based on how they're formed, tornadoes can be:

- Waterspouts: Formed over the surface of seas, oceans, and occasionally lakes.
- Fire whirls: Formed from clouds during volcanic eruptions or strong fires.
- Snow devils: Formed during strong blizzards.
- Landspouts: Formed in cumulonimbus clouds when the water temperature is much warmer than the air above the clouds.
- Funnel clouds: Made of condensed droplets of water.
- Gustnado: Not connected with clouds. Formed when cold, dry air under a cloud collides with warm, moisture-rich air near the land's surface.
- Steam devils: Formed over warm bodies of water when the air above them gets very cool.  
There are several different types of scales to measure tornadoes. The most common is the Fujita Scale, with F0 and EF0 tornadoes categorized as the weakest. Category F5 and EF5 tornadoes are the most violent and can tear houses off their foundation and even damage skyscrapers. In Europe, tornado intensity is measured on the TORRO scale from T0 to T11.

## Tornado myths and misconceptions

These destructive forces of nature have a lot of legends surrounding them:
— Many people think that green skies mean a tornado is coming. While this phenomenon may be related to severe weather, scientists have found no evidence linking the unusual color to tornadoes.
— It's a common misconception that opening a window will reduce the damage from a tornado. While atmospheric pressure does drop significantly inside a tornado, the pressure difference is unlikely to cause much harm by itself. In fact, opening windows can increase the severity of damage, as a strong tornado can destroy a home whether the windows are open or not.
— Contrary to common belief, tornadoes can occur not only in open areas, but also in cities. In 1999, this was confirmed when a strong tornado hit Salt Lake City. There's also no point in hiding under freeways, as that same year a powerful tornado in Oklahoma claimed several lives.
— In fact, even large natural objects are unable to protect people against a tornado. There are cases when tornadoes crossed large rivers and even climbed mountains.


Tornadoes and how they're formed

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release re

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release results from the movement of tectonic plates, leading to seismic waves that shake the ground. Here’s an in-depth look at what causes earthquakes, how they are measured, and recent significant seismic events.

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release results from the movement of tectonic plates, leading to seismic waves that shake the ground. Here’s an in-depth look at what causes earthquakes, how they are measured, and recent significant seismic events.
## What causes earthquakes?
Earthquakes occur due to the sudden release of energy stored in the Earth’s crust. This release is typically triggered by the movement of tectonic plates along faults. These movements can be categorized into three main types of interactions:

Convergent (destructive) boundaries: When two tectonic plates collide, one plate is often forced beneath the other in a process known as subduction. This process creates immense pressure and friction, leading to powerful earthquakes. A prime example of this is the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate along the west coast of North America​ (USGS).

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![Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/gGxtcqCvqZBPABIxcwPe/orig)

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Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg

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Divergent (constructive) boundaries: At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates move away from each other. This separation allows magma from the mantle to rise and create new crust. Earthquakes at these boundaries are generally less intense but are still significant. An example is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate are moving apart (USGS).

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![Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/FfHvAbfraOEDekEPNTog/orig)

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Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg

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Transform boundaries (faults): At transform boundaries, plates slide horizontally past each other. The San Andreas Fault in California is a notable example. The friction here causes stress to build up until it is released in an earthquake (USGS).

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![Diagram of a transform boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/JdGpUDutYHuELzymSbis/orig)

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Diagram of a transform boundary. Image by domdomegg

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## Measuring earthquakes
To quantify the size and impact of earthquakes, scientists use a variety of scales and instruments.

Seismographs: Instruments that combine a seismometer, a timing device, and a recording device to detect and record ground motion caused by seismic waves. Analyzing seismograph data helps determine an earthquake’s location, depth, and magnitude​.

Richter scale: Developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter, this logarithmic scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake based on the amplitude of seismic waves. Each whole number increase on the Richter scale corresponds to a tenfold increase in measured amplitude and about 31.6 times more energy release, meaning a magnitude 7.0 earthquake would be massively more impactful than a 6.0.

Moment magnitude scale (Mw): This scale provides a more accurate measure of an earthquake’s total energy release and is widely used today, especially for large, distant, or deep earthquakes.

Modified Mercalli intensity (MMI) scale: Unlike the Richter and moment magnitude scales, which measure the energy released by an earthquake, the MMI scale measures the intensity of shaking and its effects on people, structures, and the Earth’s surface. This scale ranges from I (not felt) to XII (total destruction). The MMI Scale is qualitative and is based on observed effects rather than instrumental readings.

European macroseismic scale (EMS): Similar to the MMI scale, the EMS measures the intensity of an earthquake based on its observed effects. The EMS is used primarily in Europe and ranges from I (not felt) to XII (completely devastating). It takes into account factors such as building damage, ground effects, and human perception of the shaking​.
## Interesting earthquake data
**Frequency of earthquakes**: Approximately 500,000 detectable earthquakes occur worldwide each year. Of these, about 100,000 can be felt, and around 100 cause significant damage​ (USGS)​. This means that, on average, over 1,300 earthquakes occur daily, most of which are too small to be felt by humans​ (USGS)​​​.

**The largest recorded earthquake**: The most powerful earthquake ever recorded was the Great Chilean Earthquake on May 22, 1960, with a magnitude of 9.5. It caused extensive damage and triggered a tsunami that affected coastal areas across the Pacific Ocean.

**Deepest earthquakes**: While most earthquakes occur at depths of less than 70 kilometers (43 miles), some can occur at much greater depths. These deep-focus earthquakes are typically associated with subduction zones. The deepest recorded earthquake occurred in 2015 at a depth of 700 kilometers (435 miles) in the Bonin Islands, Japan.

Manmade earthquakes: Human activity can sometimes cause detectable seismic activity, a phenomenon known as induced seismicity. These “manmade earthquakes” tend to be minor, but not without exceptions. For example, a 1952 Mw 5.7 earthquake in Oklahoma is suspected to have been caused by deep injection of wastewater by the oil industry.
## Recent significant earthquakes
**2023 Turkey-Syria earthquake**: On February 6, 2023, an Mw 7.8 earthquake struck southern Turkey and northern Syria. This event caused massive destruction, leading to over 50,000 deaths and extensive damage to infrastructure. The economic losses were substantial, estimated at $148.8 billion in Turkey and $14.8 billion in Syria. The international community responded with a large-scale rescue operation involving over 141,000 individuals from 94 countries​.

**2023 Marrakesh-Safi earthquake**: On September 8, 2023, an Mw 6.9 earthquake struck the Marrakesh-Safi region in Morocco. It was the most powerful earthquake recorded in Morocco’s history, resulting in the deaths of nearly 2,960 people and significant damage to historical landmarks.

**2023 Herat earthquakes: In October 2023**, a series of earthquakes measuring Mww 6.3 each struck the Herat Province in Afghanistan. These events caused substantial damage, with the World Health Organization estimating around 1,482 fatalities and thousands more injured​.

**2024 Noto earthquake**: On January 1, 2024, an Mw 7.5 earthquake struck the Ishikawa region of Japan, causing severe shaking and damage. This earthquake resulted in 245 deaths and significant damage to buildings and infrastructure​.

## Why understanding earthquakes matters
Understanding earthquakes is crucial for several reasons:

**Insight into Earth’s interior**: Earthquakes provide valuable information about the structure and composition of the Earth’s interior. By analyzing seismic waves, scientists can infer details about the Earth’s mantle and core.

**Preparedness and mitigation**: By studying seismic activity, scientists can identify areas at high risk for earthquakes and develop building codes and safety measures to minimize damage and casualties.

**Early warning systems**: While predicting earthquakes in advance remains beyond current scientific capabilities, early warning systems can provide crucial seconds to minutes of warning before significant shaking begins. These systems use a network of seismographs to detect the initial P-waves and send warnings to affected areas. However, these systems cannot predict the exact time, location, and intensity of future earthquakes. The Earth has numerous fault lines and spreading zones where shaking could potentially begin, making precise predictions challenging. Additionally, earthquakes often trigger a cascade of secondary natural disasters, such as landslides, dam breaks, and tsunamis, which contribute to their overall destructive potential​.

Earthquakes are a natural consequence of the dynamic processes occurring within the Earth’s crust. While they can be devastating, our growing understanding of their causes and characteristics enables us to better prepare for and mitigate their impacts. Through continued research and technological advancements, we can improve our ability to predict and respond to these powerful events, enhancing safety and resilience in earthquake-prone regions around the world.


Earthquakes: Understanding the forces beneath the Earth’s surface


During the course of a month, the Moon goes through several phases. The major Moon phases are the new moon, the first quarter, the full moon, and the third quarter. As a 

During the course of a month, the Moon goes through several phases. The major Moon phases are the new moon, the first quarter, the full moon, and the third quarter. As a matter of fact, the Moon displays eight main phases. We'll dive deeper into these phases to find out why this Earth's most constant companion changes its appearance night after night.

During the course of a month, the Moon goes through several phases. The major Moon phases are the new moon, the first quarter, the full moon, and the third quarter. As a matter of fact, the Moon displays eight main phases. We'll dive deeper into these phases to find out why this Earth's most constant companion changes its appearance night after night.


## Understanding the phases of the Moon

Lunar phases are the shapes of the visible part of the satellite from Earth's perspective. Fun fact: the illuminated edge of the Moon's visible surface is called the limb, while the line that separates the illuminated and the shaded sections is the Moon's terminator (a word derived from the Latin "terminare", which means "to set bounds to").

As the Moon goes around the Earth, the Sun illuminates different parts of the Moon, which changes its appearance and creates lunar phases.

Examples of terminology relating to lunar phases that is commonly used by the scientific community:
* The Moon cycle, which is one full orbit by our Moon around the Earth. It takes 29.5 days.
* A Synodic month, or a Lunation, being the time between two successive new moons.
* The age of the Moon, which is the number of days since the last new moon.

![](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/aFgVIzcPdWaciFZlGEiB/orig)

## A guide to the phases of the Moon

There are 4 major phases of the Moon — the full moon, the new moon, the first and the last quarters. The 4 minor phases are waxing crescent, waxing gibbous, waning gibbous, and waning crescent. The major phases of the Moon occur about 7.4 days apart.

**New moon**

The Moon is between the Sun and the Earth. Thus, the side of the Moon facing the Earth is in shadow.

**Waxing crescent**

This phase follows the new moon, as the Moon starts to "grow". We only see the edge of the part that is gradually illuminated by the Sun.

**First quarter**

The Moon has completed 1/4 of its orbit around the Earth. Half of the Moon's surface is illuminated by the Sun.

**Waxing gibbous**

More than half of the Moon’s surface visible from Earth is illuminated.

**Full moon**

During this phase, the Earth is positioned between the Moon and the Sun, which illuminates the entire near-side of the satellite. We can enjoy the round appearance of the full moon all night long.

**Waning gibbous**

After the full moon, the illuminated part of the Moon begins to wane. During this phase, the surface of the Moon that we see from the Earth is still mostly illuminated.

**Last quarter**

The Moon looks like it is half illuminated.

**Waning crescent**

The final phase of the Moon before transitioning back into the new moon. Only a small, crescent-shaped sliver of the Moon is visible, which is diminishing in size.

![](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/oZYbnQGKEjDVrFluxqWQ/orig)


Understanding the phases of the Moon

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching t

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching temperatures, only a few hold the records for being the hottest. These regions are not just hot; they are furnaces where the heat can be unbearable, even deadly. In this article, we will explore some of the hottest places on Earth and delve into the meteorological phenomena that make these locations so extreme

When we think of extreme heat, visions of arid deserts, parched landscapes, and relentless sun immediately come to mind. While many places on Earth experience scorching temperatures, only a few hold the records for being the hottest. These regions are not just hot; they are furnaces where the heat can be unbearable, even deadly. In this article, we will explore some of the hottest places on Earth and delve into the meteorological phenomena that make these locations so extreme.

## Measuring extreme temperatures
Temperature is typically measured using thermometers placed in standardized shelters to protect them from direct sunlight, allowing for more accurate readings of air temperature. Surface temperatures, however, can be much higher and are often recorded via satellite or ground measurements. This makes comparing temperatures challenging, as older records may not be as reliable as modern data due to inconsistencies in measurement methods. Despite these challenges, certain locations have consistently recorded extreme temperatures that place them among the hottest on Earth.

## 6. Ahvaz, Iran
**Highest temperature:** 53.7°C (129°F) in 2017

Ahvaz, a city in southwestern Iran, is known for its extreme temperatures. The city is also home to the stunning White Bridge (Pol-e Sefid), an iconic landmark that spans the Karun River and is illuminated beautifully at night.

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![The White Bridge in Ahvaz, Iran. Image by Sajjadsoroosh](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/AFMmzAHXyvxXOjDhtQRQ/orig)

The White Bridge in Ahvaz, Iran. Image by Sajjadsoroosh
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### Factors contributing to Ahvaz’s heat
* Ahvaz is located near the Lut Desert, contributing to the high temperatures.
* Urban heat island effect: The urban environment of Ahvaz can further amplify temperatures due to the heat retention of buildings and pavement.

## 5. Mitribah, Kuwait
**Highest temperature:** 54°C (129.2°F) in 2016

Mitribah, a remote area in Kuwait, recorded one of the highest temperatures on Earth.

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![The skyline of Al Kuwayt, the capital of Kuwait. Image by SenuScape](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/mDxaIicSAoHZTThtrXqN/orig)

The skyline of Al Kuwayt, the capital of Kuwait. Image by SenuScape
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### Factors contributing to Mitribah’s heat
* Desert environment: Mitribah is situated in a desert climate with extreme heat and minimal precipitation.
* High-pressure systems: Persistent high-pressure systems in the region contribute to clear skies and prolonged sunshine.
## 4. Dallol, Ethiopia
**Average daily temperatures:** Exceed 40°C (104°F) with highs approaching 48.9°C (120°F)

Dallol, located in the Danakil Depression in Ethiopia, is one of the hottest inhabited places on Earth. Dallol is known for its otherworldly landscape, including colorful hydrothermal deposits and acidic hot springs, making it a popular site for adventurous travelers.
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![The Dallol volcano. Image by A. Savin](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/giievMrTStfzxidlAXfg/orig)

The Dallol volcano. Image by A. Savin
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### Factors contributing to Dallol’s heat
* Geothermal activity: The region’s geothermal activity contributes to the high temperatures.
* Desert climate: The arid climate exacerbates the heat.
## 3. Sahara Desert, North Africa
**Highest verified temperature:** 124.3°F (51.3°C) in 2018

The Sahara Desert, the world’s largest hot desert, spans several North African countries and experiences extreme heat, especially in the central regions. In El Azizia, Libya, a temperature of 57.8°C (136°F) was once recorded, though this measurement is disputed. Kebili, a desert town in Tunisia, is also known for recording one of the highest temperatures in Africa: in 1931, a temperature of 55°C (131°F) was reported, although this record is similarly considered less reliable than modern data. A much more verifiable record for the Sahara was set during the 2018 heat wave, measuring 51.3°C (124.3°F).

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![The Sahara Desert. Image by Greg Gulik](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/LGXgLpjmFmmJTWAXucrA/orig)

The Sahara Desert. Image by Greg Gulik
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### Meteorological dynamics in the Sahara
* High insolation: The Sahara receives some of the highest amounts of solar radiation on Earth.
* Arid climate: The dry conditions mean there is very little evaporation to cool the air, leading to high temperatures.
* Sand and rock composition: The sandy and rocky terrain absorbs and radiates heat efficiently.
## 2. Lut Desert, Iran
**Highest ground temperature:** 70.7°C (159.3°F) in 2005

The Lut Desert, or Dasht-e Lut, in southeastern Iran, is one of the hottest places on Earth in terms of surface temperature. According to NASA’s satellite data, this desert holds the record for the highest ground temperature ever recorded: an astonishing 159.3°F (70.7°C) in 2005. The Lut Desert is a UNESCO World Heritage site, renowned for its stunning geological formations, including the massive Yardangs — wind-carved ridges and grooves that stretch for miles.

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![Dasht-e Lut, an aerial view. Image by Ninaras](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/JFqEeBkqaUwOVKdGEMek/orig)

Dasht-e Lut, an aerial view. Image by Ninaras
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### Meteorological factors in the Lut Desert
* Surface composition: The desert features dark lava surfaces, which absorb a significant amount of solar radiation, leading to extremely high surface temperatures.
* Dry air: The arid climate means there is very little moisture in the air to absorb heat, allowing surface temperatures to soar.
* Seasonal variations: During the summer months, the lack of vegetation and moisture leads to minimal cooling at night, keeping the temperatures high.

## 1. Death Valley, California, USA
**Highest air temperature:** 53.7°C (129°F) in 2017

Located in the Mojave Desert in eastern California, Death Valley is a place synonymous with extreme heat. Furnace Creek in Death Valley recorded the highest air temperature ever observed on our planet. While many records are hard to verify, Death Valley remains the undisputed hottest place on Earth.

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![Death Valley National Park. Image by Abby Kihano](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10879918/JBEEdLYfEfFiwexPkAMi/orig)

Death Valley National Park. Image by Abby Kihano
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### Why is Death Valley so hot?
* Geography and topography: Death Valley is a below-sea-level basin surrounded by high, steep mountain ranges. This topography contributes to a phenomenon known as a “rain shadow,” where mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems, leading to arid conditions.
* Albedo effect: The valley’s floor consists of light-colored salt flats, which reflect sunlight and intensify the heat.
* High-pressure systems: Persistent high-pressure systems often dominate the region, leading to clear skies and prolonged sunshine.

The hottest places on Earth are fascinating examples of how geography, atmospheric conditions, and human factors interact to create extreme environments. Understanding these factors not only satisfies our curiosity but also highlights the challenges faced by people living in these regions. As climate change continues to impact global weather patterns, we could see even more record-setting temperatures in these places as well as other parts of the world. Studying these hotspots provides valuable, actionable insights into the future of our planet’s climate.


The hottest places on Earth: Where the sun’s fury is unleashed

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planni

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planning and preparation, we can significantly reduce the damage caused by these seismic events. Let’s explore some scientifically backed strategies to minimize earthquake damage, drawing from expert sources and government agencies.

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planning and preparation, we can significantly reduce the damage caused by these seismic events. Let’s explore some scientifically backed strategies to minimize earthquake damage, drawing from expert sources and government agencies.

## Building a strong foundation
The old adage “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure” couldn’t be more apt when it comes to earthquake preparedness. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) [emphasizes](https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/earthquake/seismic-building-codes) the importance of structural integrity in minimizing earthquake damage. For homeowners and businesses, this means:
1. Evaluating your building’s structure, especially if it’s older than current seismic design provisions in local building codes.
2. Considering retrofits to meet or exceed current building codes.
3. Paying special attention to unreinforced masonry, which is particularly vulnerable during earthquakes.

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![An example of earthquake retrofitting: a parking structure in Berkeley, California. Image by Alex Mead](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/UFmnZWLizSbuaiEcORnB/orig) 

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An example of earthquake retrofitting: a parking structure in Berkeley, California. Image by Alex Mead

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## Securing the inside
While a strong building is crucial, what’s inside matters too. Non-structural elements can pose significant risks during an earthquake. Earthquake experts [recommend](https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/blog/2020/how-to-protect-your-home-before-an-earthquake) several steps to secure your interior spaces:
* Anchor heavy furniture, appliances, and shelving to wall studs.
* Secure ceiling lights and false ceilings to joists.
* Install flexible gas and water connections on appliances.
* Apply safety film to windows and glass doors to prevent shattering.
* Brace heavy machinery, containers, and tanks that could shift or rupture.
These measures not only protect your belongings but also reduce the risk of injury from falling objects.
## Preparing for the aftermath
Earthquake damage isn’t limited to the shaking itself. Secondary effects, like fires, can be just as devastating. The California Earthquake Authority [emphasizes](https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/blog/2020/what-should-you-do-after-an-earthquake) the importance of post-earthquake preparedness:
* Regularly check fire safety equipment, including extinguishers and water tanks.
* Assemble disaster preparedness kits with essentials like dust masks, portable chargers, and battery-powered radios.
* Train staff or family members on emergency procedures, including how to shut off gas, electricity, and water.
Did you know that after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, it was the subsequent fires that [caused](https://www.1906eqconf.org/plenarySessions.htm) about 90% of the total damage? This underscores the critical importance of fire prevention and preparedness in earthquake-prone areas.

<figure>

![The aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Image by the National Archives and Records Administration](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/OlsPCfKyRotKQppzPQnu/orig)

<figcaption>
The aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Image by the National Archives and Records Administration

</figcaption>
</figure>

## Community-wide efforts
Individual preparedness is crucial, but community-wide efforts can have an even broader impact. The Seismological Society of America [recommends](https://www.seismosoc.org/us-government-relations/actions-managing-earthquake-risk/) several actions for managing earthquake risk on a larger scale:
1. Developing a culture of preparedness through education and awareness programs.
2. Investing in retrofitting or replacing essential facilities like hospitals, schools, and emergency response centers.
3. Collaborating on region-wide, multi-organizational plans for earthquake response and recovery.
Japan’s nationwide earthquake early warning system, [implemented](https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/Activities/eew.html#:~:text=The%20Japan%20Meteorological%20Agency%20(JMA),such%20as%20TV%20and%20radio) in 2007, provides a few seconds to a minute of warning before strong shaking begins, allowing people to take immediate protective actions.
## The role of technology
Advancements in technology play an increasingly important role in earthquake preparedness. While we can’t predict earthquakes with precision, early warning systems can provide crucial seconds of advance notice. Many cities and states now offer free earthquake alert apps that can give residents a brief heads-up before the shaking starts.

For instance, the [ShakeAlert system](https://www.usgs.gov/programs/earthquake-hazards/science/earthquake-early-warning-overview) on the U.S. West Coast can [detect](https://www.usgs.gov/news/entire-us-west-coast-now-has-access-shakealert-earthquake-early-warning) earthquakes as they begin, potentially providing valuable seconds of warning to areas farther from the epicenter. This time can be crucial for automated systems to slow trains, open firehouse doors, or initiate other protective measures.
## Innovative building technologies
Engineers and architects are continually developing new technologies to make buildings more earthquake-resistant. Some fascinating innovations include:
1. [Base isolation](https://www.taylordevices.com/base-isolation/#:~:text=A%20base%20isolation%20system%20is,an%20earthquake%20is%20reduced%20significantly.): This technique involves placing flexible pads between a building and its foundation, allowing the structure to move somewhat independently of the ground during an earthquake.
2. [Tuned mass dampers](https://engineering.purdue.edu/~ce573/Documents/Intro%20to%20Structural%20Motion%20Control_Chapter4.pdf#:~:text=A%20tuned%20mass%20damper%20(TMD),phase%20with%20the%20structural%20motion): Large weights placed at the top of tall buildings that move in the opposite direction of the building’s sway, helping to counteract the earthquake’s motion.
3. [Shape memory alloys](https://phys.org/news/2012-02-shape-memory-alloys-earthquake-resistant.html): These materials can “remember” their original shape after being deformed, potentially allowing buildings to return to their original position after an earthquake.
4. [Self-centering systems](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2020/8859881): These designs allow buildings to rock during an earthquake and then return to their original position, minimizing structural damage.

<figure>

![Shanghai Tower tuned mass dumper. Image by: MasaneMiyaPA](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/CqofyeijfVJrZUTDdmnJ/orig)  

<figcaption>
Shanghai Tower tuned mass dumper. Image by: MasaneMiyaPA

</figcaption>
</figure>

## Seismic deconvolution and masking
[Seismic deconvolution](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-8105-8_4#:~:text=Deconvolution%20is%20a%20general%20term,the%20seismic%20sources%20and%20receivers) removes effects that mask primary reflected events on a seismogram, such as absorption, reverberation, and ghosting. This technique helps obtain clearer seismic data, crucial for understanding geological structures and making informed decisions about building designs and retrofits.

Additionally, explainable artificial intelligence (AI) is also [being used](https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.06682) to design masks for self-supervised seismic denoising. This approach helps suppress noise in seismic data without requiring prior knowledge of the noise itself, making it a fully automated denoising procedure. This technology can significantly improve the accuracy of seismic data interpretation, leading to better earthquake preparedness and response strategies.
## “Floating house”
One of the most intriguing innovations in earthquake-resistant housing comes from Japan. Air Danshin Systems Inc., a Japanese company, has developed a groundbreaking technology that allows houses to temporarily “float” above the ground during earthquakes. Here’s how Air Danshin’s [system](https://airdanshin.co.jp/house/) works:
* The house is built with an additional foundation, a sensor, and an air compressor.
* When the sensor detects the initial tremors of an earthquake, it sends a signal to the external air compressor.
* Within 0.5 to 1 second, the compressor activates and pumps compressed air between the earthquake-proof foundation and the base of the house.
* This action lifts the entire structure approximately 3 cm (about 1.2 inches) off the ground.
* The house remains elevated during the earthquake, effectively isolating it from ground movements.
* Once the tremors subside, the air is gradually released, and the house settles back onto its foundation.
Air Danshin [claims](https://airdanshin.co.jp/house/) that a house not in contact with the ground during an earthquake will not shake, thus preventing damage. However, this technology has limitations. The 3 cm lift height may not be sufficient for earthquakes with significant vertical movement. Additionally, the system comes with a substantial cost.

Despite these limitations, Air Danshin’s floating house technology represents an innovative approach to earthquake-resistant housing. While it may not be a complete solution to earthquake damage, it could be a valuable piece of a larger strategy for improving seismic safety.
## Economic impact and insurance
The economic toll of earthquakes can be staggering. The 1994 Northridge earthquake in California, the [second-most](https://www.californiaresidentialmitigationprogram.com/resources/blog/which-state-has-the-most-earthquakes-in-the-us#:~:text=Not%20only%20is%20Alaska%20the,fact%20of%20life%20in%20Alaska) seismically-active U.S. states, [caused](https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/earthquakes/northridge) an estimated $20 billion in damage. Earthquake insurance can play a crucial role in recovery, but standard homeowner’s insurance policies typically don’t cover earthquake damage.

<figure>

![The aftermath of the Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994. Image by Gary B. Edstrom](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/wXmpugRBGGinFKpBiBVm/orig)   

<figcaption>
The aftermath of the Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994. Image by Gary B. Edstrom

</figcaption>
</figure>

In California, the California Earthquake Authority (CEA) provides most residential earthquake insurance policies. [As of 2022](https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/earthquake/insurance#:~:text=Despite%20experiencing%2090%25%20of%20the,California's%20residents%20have%20earthquake%20insurance.), only about 10% of California homeowners had earthquake insurance, highlighting a significant gap in financial preparedness.

While we can’t prevent earthquakes, we can certainly mitigate their impact. By focusing on structural integrity, securing non-structural elements, preparing for aftermath scenarios, fostering community preparedness, and leveraging technology, we can significantly reduce the damage and disruption caused by seismic events.

Remember, earthquake preparedness is an ongoing process, not a one-time effort. Regular assessments, updates to your preparedness plans, and staying informed about the latest safety recommendations are all part of a comprehensive approach to minimizing earthquake damage.

As we continue to improve our understanding of seismic risks and develop new mitigation techniques, we move closer to a future where earthquakes, while still formidable natural events, no longer pose the catastrophic threat they once did.

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